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| − | <h1> <b>Human Practices Silver</b></h1>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">We wanted our system of PHB production and secretion to be applied in the real world, but were unsure where it could be best implemented. We narrowed down the scope of our search to four applications which seemed to have some theoretical support. After consultations with industry, discussions with advisors and experts, and a tour of the Pine Creek Wastewater Treatment Plant in Calgary, we decided to evaluate the demand, cost, available resources, and impact of each of these applications. Most importantly, we used the findings for each application to carefully consider whether or not synthetic biology was the best approach for each. Ultimately, we decided that applying our design on future long-term interplanetary space missions would be the most valuable use of our system. Our findings and reasoning are summarized below.</p>
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| − | <div id="Caption"><b>Table 1: </b>Comparing different applications of our engineered <i> E. coli </i>. Click on each coloured link to learn more:</div>
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| − | <table>
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| − | <tr>
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| − | <th> </th>
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| − | <th>Wastewater treatment</th>
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| − | <th> Small-scale wastewater treatment in developing countries </th>
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| − | <th> Landfill leachate treatment </th>
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| − | <th> Outer space </th>
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| − | </tr>
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| − | <tr>
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| − | <th>Demand</th>
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| − | <td><a href="#DemandWWTP">Moderate</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#DemandDevelopingCountries">High</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#DemandLeachate">Low</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#DemandSpace">High</a></td>
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| − | </tr>
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| − | <tr>
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| − | <th>Costs</th>
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| − | <td><a href="#CostWWTP">High</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#CostDevelopingCountries">Moderate</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#CostLeachate">Moderate</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#CostSpace">Low</a></td>
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| − | </tr>
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| − | <tr>
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| − | <th>Impact (Safety, Environment, Society, Economy)</th>
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| − | <td><a href="#ImpactWWTP">Low</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#ImpactDevelopingCountries">High</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#ImpactLeachate">Low</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#ImpactSpace">Moderate</a></td>
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| − | </tr>
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| − | <tr>
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| − | <th>Available Resources and Industry Contacts</th>
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| − | <td><a href="#ContactWWTP">Many</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#ContactDevelopingCountries">Some</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#ContactLeachate">Few</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#ContactSpace">Many</a></td>
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| − | </tr>
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| − | <tr>
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| − | <th>Is Synthetic Biology Best?</th>
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| − | <td><a href="#SynbioWWTP">Not yet</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#SynbioDevelopingCountries">Not yet</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#SynbioLeachate">Not yet</a></td>
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| − | <td><a href="#SynbioSpace"><font color="#5ec3af">Yes</font></a></td>
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| − | </tr>
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| − | </table>
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| − | <h2 style="text-align:center">WASTEWATER TREATMENT</h2>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="DemandWWTP"></a>
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| − | <h3>Demand</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">According to Polyferm, a Canadian PHA company, bioplastics are not in very high demand due to high cost of production. If they were produced at a cost and efficiency similar to petroleum-based plastics, demand would increase.</p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div class="rightColumn">
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="CostWWTP"></a>
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| − | <h3>Cost</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">The cost of implementing pure cultures into current wastewater treatment systems is extremely high as this process would require new, separate systems. Currently, the Pine Creek Wastewater Treatment Plant in Calgary processes about 1 million cubic meters of waste per day. The COD content and PHA yield were assumed to be 1000 mg/L and 0.11 kg of PHA per kg of COD, respectively, for the calculations. We estimated 28 100 000 kg of PHB produced per year for any wastewater treatment facility. And with a price of $5 per kg of PHB (Choi & Lee, 1997), we estimate revenues of $140-141 million.</p>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="ImpactWWTP"></a>
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| − | <h3>Impact</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">There is limited impact felt by the average consumer and taxes may actually increase to implement this system. However, if successful, this system could help PHA become a more desirable alternative, competing with traditional plastics. PHAs are also a higher-value product than the biogas already produced in wastewater treatment plants.</p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div class="rightColumn">
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="ContactWWTP"></a>
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| − | <h3>Contacts</h3>
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| − | <p>
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| − | <ul style="text-align:left">
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| − | <li>Calgary Wastewater Labs</li>
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| − | <li>Christine Sharp</li>
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| − | <li>ACWA</li>
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| − | </ul>
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| − | </p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div id="BoxContainer">
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="SynbioWWTP"></a>
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| − | <h3>Is synthetic biology the best solution?</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">Not yet. Pure-culture production of PHAs from wastewater has been deemed too costly. Current research indicates mixed cultures best balance efficiency and cost. Our engineered <i>E. coli</i> could not survive in a mixed culture.</p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div id="BigBox">
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| − | <h2 style="text-align:center">DEVELOPING COUNTRIES</h2>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="DemandDevelopingCountries"></a>
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| − | <h3>Demand</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">There is a large demand for wastewater treatment of any kind in developing countries. In addition, biodegradable plastic would also help with the problems of plastic waste disposal in these countries.</p>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="CostDevelopingCountries"></a>
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| − | <h3>Cost</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">In developing countries, our team envisioned PHB production incorporated into scaled-down wastewater treatment systems in small communities that lacked established treatment methods. Selling PHB would provide monetary incentive to construct a wastewater treatment system, which, in turn, will reduce diseases due to poor sanitation. Additionally, we wanted to compare PHB production between genetically engineered bacteria and natural bacterial communities in sludge, which have been previously used to feasibly produce PHB. Assuming a community size of 2000 people, solid waste generation of 3.113 x 10<sup>-3</sup> m<sup>3</sup>/day/person (Palanivel & Sulaiman, 2014), COD content of 601 mg/L, COD to PHB conversion of 0.11 for mixed cultures and 0.88 for pure cultures (Rhu, Lee, Kim & Choi, 2003) and a price of $5 per kg of PHB (Choi & Lee, 1997), we found that using pure cultures results in additional $2,000 in revenues. However, the cost of sterilization of waste stream before inoculation with pure culture was estimated at
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| − | <br> $100 000 (Choi & Lee, 1997).</p>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="ImpactDevelopingCountries"></a>
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| − | <h3>Impact</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">Our project would empower communities by providing them the opportunity to produce a high-value product, positively impacting their economy. There will also be profound environmental and health impacts as this system can help decrease water pollution and the spread of disease.</p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div class="rightColumn">
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="ContactDevelopingCountries"></a>
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| − | <h3>Contacts</h3>
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| − | <p>
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| − | <ul style="text-align:left">
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| − | <li>NGOs for funding</li>
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| − | <li>EnVIBE (De-centralized Water Treatment Systems)</li>
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| − | <li>University of Calgary professors working on wastewater treatment in developing countries</li>
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| − | </ul>
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| − | </p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div id="BoxContainer">
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="SynbioDevelopingCountries"></a>
| + | |
| − | <h3>Is synthetic biology the best solution?</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">Not yet. PHB secretion may make the process more user-friendly, but the costs of sterilization and maintaining a pure culture will be too high. Thus, a small-scale PHB production and wastewater treatment plant will not be able to profit from the current process.</p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div id="BigBox">
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| − | <h2 style="text-align:center">LANDFILL LEACHATE TREATMENT</h2>
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| − | <div id="TableContainer">
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| − | <div class="leftColumn">
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="DemandLeachate"></a>
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| − | <h3>Demand</h3>
| + | |
| − | <p style="text-align:left">According to Polyferm, bioplastics are not in very high demand due to high cost of production. If they were produced at a cost and efficiency similar to petroleum-based plastics, demand would increase.</p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div class="rightColumn">
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="CostLeachate"></a>
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| − | <h3>Cost</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">The integration of PHB production in leachate treatment would likely be unfeasible due to low volumes of leachate that are usually produced at landfills. In Calgary, a single landfill generates about 100,000 L of leachate per day. Although COD content in leachate is higher than in wastewater, the estimated amount of PHB produced in Calgary was about 8000 kg/year, based on COD content of 1977 mg/L in Calgary leachate (Kashef & Lungue, 2016). In addition, a new system will need to be implemented to collect VFAs in fermenters and process them in bioreactors. The estimated cost of such a system is $140-215 million. If done on-site at the Calgary Pilot Leachate Treatment Plant, there would be reduced transportation costs. Our system must compete economically with deep-well injections. Potential revenues for estimated amounts of PHA that can be produced per year in various locations are as follows:</p>
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| − | <p>
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| − | <ul style="text-align:left">
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| − | <li>Calgary: $40,000</li>
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| − | <li>Hong Kong: $4.5-15 million</li>
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| − | <li>Vancouver: $16 million</li>
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| − | </ul>
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| − | </p>
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| − | <p>Based on our calculations, it would be more feasible to implement our system in cities like Hong Kong and Vancouver.</p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="ImpactLeachate"></a>
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| − | <h3>Impact</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">By using the leachate, we could reduce leachate holding times, which could reduce the chance of leachate leaking into groundwater and prevent toxins (eg: ammonia) from forming. Less toxins reduces overall leachate treatment costs.</p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="ContactLeachate"></a>
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| − | <h3>Contacts</h3>
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| − | <p>
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| − | <ul style="text-align:left">
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| − | <li>Alberta Environment and Parks</li>
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| − | <li>Calgary Landfills</li>
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| − | <li>Calgary Leachate Pilot Treatment Program</li>
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| − | </ul>
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| − | </p>
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| − | </div>
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| − | <div id="BoxContainer">
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="SynbioLeachate"></a>
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| − | <h3>Is synthetic biology the best solution?</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">Not yet. PHB has never been produced from leachate, but it is likely that mixed cultures would still be better for leachate treatment. Leachate treatment may require synthetic biology to confer toxin resistance to select organisms in these mixed cultures.</p>
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| − | <h2 style="text-align:center">OUTER SPACE</h2>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="DemandSpace"></a>
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| − | <h3>Demand</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">Bioplastics are in demand in space, although, what is highly desired is a quicker conversion of feedstock to PHA. In a space colony, our application could create goods and tools in a manner that is not resource intensive.</p>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="CostSpace"></a>
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| − | <h3>Cost</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">There is a high cost associated with developing an entire waste-to-product system from scratch. However, creating a larger bioplastic production system for Mars colonies would ultimately decrease the cost of raw material that needs to be shipped into space. According to NASA, the cost of shipping supplies to space using SpaceX Dragon spacecraft is $27,000 per pound. The costs saved by producing 41 kg of PHA in space would then be about $2,440,000. Our team also contacted a 3D printing company called 4G Vision Tech that uses selective laser sintering (SLS), which can be used to 3D print with PHA (Pereira et al., 2012). Howard from 4G Vision Tech approximated that the predicted amount of PHA can be used to create approximately 50 hydroponic systems and 20 general tools like wrenches, hammers, and scissors.</p>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="ImpactSpace"></a>
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| − | <h3>Impact</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">This project could help a future Mars colony achieve greater independence. In addition, managing solid human waste is a pressing need that NASA is trying to address. So far, most methods of waste disposal have been deemed unfeasible. There is a less direct impact to most people on Earth in the present time. However, our system can prove to be an important development in NASA's endeavours towards Mars colonizations.</p>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="ContactSpace"></a>
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| − | <h3>Contacts</h3>
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| − | <ul style="text-align:left">
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| − | <li> Astronauts:
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| − | <li> Robert Thirsk </li>
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| − | <li> Chris Hadfield </li>
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| − | </ol>
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| − | </li>
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| − | <li> NASA </li>
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| − | <li>CSA</li>
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| − | <li>Made in Space</li>
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| − | </ul>
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| − | <a class="anchor" id="SynbioSpace"></a>
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| − | <h3>Is synthetic biology the best solution?</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">Yes. In space, human waste is already sterilized. Therefore, integrating our pure culture into the system after sterilization is not difficult and our use of pure cultures can be justified. Also, in space we would need the highest efficiency possible and this is only possible through synthetic biology.</p>
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| − | <h3>Additional Safety Considerations in Outer Space</h3>
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| − | <p style="text-align:left">Yes. In space, human waste is already sterilized. Therefore, integrating our pure culture into the system after sterilization is not difficult and our use of pure cultures can be justified. Also, in space we would need the highest efficiency possible and this is only possible through synthetic biology.</p>
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| − | |REFERENCES=
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| − | <h2 style="text-align:center">WORKS CITED</h2>
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| − | <p>Choi, J., & Lee, S. (1997). Process analysis and economic evaluation for Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) production by fermentation. Bioprocess Engineering, 17(6), 335-342.</p>
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| − | <p>Coats, E., VandeVoort, K., Darby, J., & Loge, f. (2011). Toward Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production Concurrent with Municipal Wastewater Treatment in a Sequencing Batch Reactor System. Journal Of Environmental Engineering, 137(1).</p>
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| − | <p>Kashef, O., & Lungue, L. (2016). Successes of The City of Calgary’s Leachate Treatment Pilot Plant, and Use of Treated Leachate to Build a Greener Future. Presentation.
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| − | <p>Leachate treatment in China: Technologies and Import Opportunities", 2015</p>
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| − | <p>Palanivel, T., & Sulaiman, H. (2014). Generation and Composition of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. APCBEE Procedia.</p>
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| − | <p>Pereira, T., Oliveira, M., Maia, I., Silva, J., Costa, M., & Thiré, R. (2012). 3D Printing of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) Porous Structures Using Selective Laser Sintering. Macromolecular Symposia, 319(1), 64-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/masy.201100237</p>
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| − | <p>Rhu, D., Lee, W., Kim, J., & Choi, E. (2003). Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production from waste. Water Science & Technology, 48(8), 221-228.
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| − | <p>Rose, C., Parker, A., Jefferson, B., & Cartmell, E. (2015). The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology. Critical Reviews In Environmental Science And Technology, 45(17), 1827-1879. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761</p>
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| − | <p>Vancouver landfill 2016 annual report. (2017).</p>
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| − | <p>Zhang, Ylikorpi, T., & Pepe, G. (2015). Biomass-based Fuel Cells for Manned Space Exploration Final Report.</p>
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| + | |
| − | }
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | #BoxContainer {
| + | |
| − | padding: 2rem;
| + | |
| − | }
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | .leftColumn, .rightColumn{
| + | |
| − | width: 100%;
| + | |
| − | padding: 0rem;}
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | .rightColumn{padding:0;}
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | }
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | @media only screen and (min-width: 58.75em ) {
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | #TableContainer{
| + | |
| − | text-align: center;
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | }
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | #TableContainer img{
| + | |
| − | padding: 0px;
| + | |
| − | }
| + | |
| − | }
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | @media only screen and (max-width: 44.68rem){
| + | |
| − | a.anchor {
| + | |
| − | top: -50px;
| + | |
| − | }}
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | </style>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | <script>
| + | |
| − | $('a[href^="#"]').on('click', function(event) {
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | var target = $(this.getAttribute('href'));
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | if( target.length ) {
| + | |
| − | event.preventDefault();
| + | |
| − | $('html, body').stop().animate({
| + | |
| − | scrollTop: target.offset().top
| + | |
| − | }, 1000);
| + | |
| − | }
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | });
| + | |
| − | </script>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | </head>
| + | |
| − | </html>
| + | |
